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The function of the gut immune system depends on the integrity of the mucosal barrier, the homeostasis of immune cells, and the balance of the gut microbiota, which also maintains a unique bidirectional regulatory relationship with the BGA
Limitations: No modern trials have replicated this in younger, healthy populations
Rare and specialty categories are advancing through precision targeting rather than volume
A Cochrane review comparing oral and intramuscular B12 found comparable effects on blood levels, and the same principle of good absorption applies to the subcutaneous route
Fuloria S, Mehta J, Chandel A, Sekar M, Rani NNIM, Begum MY, et al
10.1038/s41598-018-37385-x 32 CruzatV.Macedo RogeroM.Noel KeaneK.CuriR.NewsholmeP
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